2026年3月托福机经套卷(第5套) - Read an Academic Passage / 2 Q4

Value Theory Value theory investigates the nature of values and the principles that determine what is worth pursuing, both individually and collectively. Central questions include: What makes something good? Are values objective features of the world or subjective preferences? A key distinction in value theory is between intrinsic value, which denotes value something has in itself, and instrumental value, which refers to the value of something as a means to an end. One influential theory within this domain is utilitarianism, which posits that the moral worth of actions is determined by their consequences, specifically the maximization of overall happiness or utility. This consequentialist framework has shaped ethical reasoning in fields ranging from public policy to economics. However, critics argue that utilitarianism's aggregation of happiness can negate individual rights and seemingly justify morally troubling trade-offs. For example, allocating limited healthcare resources to benefit the majority may disadvantage those with rare or costly conditions, raising concerns about fairness and equity. Contemporary value theorists often endorse value pluralism, the view that multiple, sometimes conflicting values—such as autonomy, justice, and compassion—are irreducibly important. This pluralistic approach emphasizes the complexity of ethical decision-making and the need to navigate competing goods instead of reducing them to a single metric.